Overview of the major issues in the Upper Cumberland River Basin.
During the year 2000, the Upper Cumberland River Basin was assessed by a collaboration of agencies including the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Geological Survey, Big South Fork National Park, Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, U.S. Forest Service and Kentucky Division of Water. The data was assimilated and assessed by the Kentucky Division of Water, as required by Section 305(b) of the federal Clean Water Act. Streams were assessed for one or more designated uses that include primary contact recreation (swimming), secondary contact recreation (boating), warmwater aquatic habitat, coldwater aquatic habitat, domestic water supply and outstanding state resource water. In addition, fish tissue samples were collected and analyzed for contamination at various sites, based on evidence of sport fishing in the area or the possibility of toxicity problems from previously collected data. Fish tissue is analyzed and advisories posted in areas where contamination poses human health threats. For a list of the designation of uses of surface waters in Kentucky see 401 KAR 5:026.
There were approximately 1,470 miles of streams assessed in the basin. Of these, about 208 miles of streams were found to be not supporting one or more of their designated uses. There were also about 161 miles partially supporting their designated uses. This leaves about 1,100 miles, or about 75 percent, of the streams fully supporting designated uses. Of those streams fully supporting, more than 150 miles of water have been declared as “exceptional.” Exceptional waters are those that have either a fish or macroinvertebrate community that is considered “excellent.”
In addition to the streams assessed, there were 13 lakes or reservoirs assessed for a total of 62,702 acres of water. Only one lake, Corbin City Reservoir, was determined to be not supporting all of its designated uses. Three lakes, including Lake Cumberland, were found to be partially supporting their designated uses. The remaining nine lakes assessed were found to be fully supporting designated uses.
Numerous issues were identified during the assessment year, such as:
Mining
Historically, the eastern half of the Upper Cumberland River basin has been a major coal-producing region. Coal mining has influenced Bell and Harlan counties in particular. The result of decades of surface and deep mining has left many scars on the landscape as well as numerous water quality and quantity issues.
Deep mining was the early method of coal mining that left fewer landscape alterations but greatly altered groundwater quality and hydrogeology in certain regions. Outflows often flow from the mine portals that were used to enter the mine. The outflow water quality can range from excellent to poor, depending on the location. In some areas the water is used as a public drinking water supply. In other areas the water suffers from excess metals, minerals or low pH.
Surface mining became feasible in the 1930s as the result of mechanical innovations in the coal industry. Using dragline excavation, large volumes of earth could be removed to expose the coal seam. Soil and rock layers were exposed, resulting in reactions that produce acidity/alkalinity. Add water from exposed groundwater seams, and the result is numerous sites where acid mine drainage has tainted streams with iron, manganese and pH problems.
The Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act went into effect in 1977, but many areas had already been abandoned. Funding is available to fix pre-law mine discharges; however, costs can be astronomical and solutions are often only a partial fix. Permits are now required for mining, and discharges must be permitted and treated.
Other problems from surface mining include siltation due to runoff from exposed extraction areas. Even with laws requiring revegetation and contouring, the sheer movement of tons of earth inevitably results in significant discharges of silt to Kentucky’s waterways.
Many miles of small headwater streams have been lost to valley areas being filled with overburden. More than 100,000 acres of watershed have been filled or hydromodified because of valley fills.
More than 100 miles of streams have been documented as impaired as a result of acid mine drainage, sedimentation and flow alterations from coal mining.
Another problem that is linked to surface mining is the loss of water supply to citizens depending on well water for household use. Changes in the local hydrogeology from soil and bedrock disturbance by surface mining have affected many groundwater drinking water sources. As a result, many isolated areas have undependable water supplies.
Wastewater
Improper management of wastewater is a major issue in the Upper Cumberland basin. The presence of straight-pipe discharges, failing septic systems and improperly maintained package plants have greatly impacted water quality in the Upper Cumberland basin. Elevated levels of fecal coliform bacteria (from human and animal waste) have been detected in numerous portions of the basin. Moreover, the levels of fecal coliform bacteria are so high that numerous streams and creeks are unsafe for swimming or recreational activities, such as wading, boating and fishing. More than 200 miles of assessed streams are impaired by wastewater contamination.
The majority of households are not connected to municipal wastewater treatment systems and therefore rely on some form of onsite treatment for wastewater. Some areas, such as some residential subdivisions, are served by small wastewater facilities known as package plants, which have a poor maintenance record. The primary onsite treatment system for households in the Upper Cumberland is a septic tank to remove solid material and a leach field to dispose of the wastewater. Septic tanks, where applicable, offer good treatment if the system is properly installed and maintained. However, in most areas of eastern Kentucky, the soils are not well suited for wastewater leachate removal and it is common for systems to fail.
Thousands of households in the Upper Cumberland basin do not have any form of wastewater treatment, and the untreated wastewater from these households is discharged directly to a creek or onto the ground. This is known as a “straight-pipe” discharge. The problem is complicated by many factors. Many problem areas are present as the result of concentrated housing in narrow valleys, leaving no room for septic systems. Often these areas are too far away from a municipal treatment facility, and the steep terrain limits sewer service to most areas. While the use of package plants is an option, it is often discouraged as poor maintenance frequently results in plant failures.
Though wastewater treatment facilities are the best option for sewage treatment, they are not infallible. In some areas served by municipal facilities, large flushes of raw sewage are commonly released as the result of various failures in the collection systems. Storm water can flood collection lines forcing overflows. Lift station pumps can fail, resulting in by-passes of the sewage collection system. Most areas have deteriorating collection lines that leak and allow infiltration of sewage into groundwater.
Inadequate facilities and planning is the biggest problem in many counties, leaving many houses with few feasible options for wastewater treatment. An ongoing effort to regionalize wastewater systems has been largely unsuccessful due to geographic and political constraints. Currently, the best hope for many areas is to utilize alternative treatment systems to treat wastewater locally. Many obstacles are involved, such as planning, technology funding and responsible entities for long-term operation and maintenance.
One other source of wastewater that is common to lakes in the Upper Cumberland is wastewater discharge from houseboats. Many houseboat operators have historically used the “dilution is the solution to pollution” technique, by discharging raw sewage into lake waters rather than pay to pump out the sewage at a marina. During busy summer weekends, lakes can receive significant sewage discharges from this action and cause swimming hazards. Although recent laws have banned the action, there are occasional problems reported.
Logging
Logging in the basin has increased dramatically over the past decade and is showing no signs of slowing down. Why the sudden increase? In the late 80s and early 90s, the heavily logged Pacific Northwest came under increasing pressure to stop intensive harvesting. Southern Appalachia became an attractive source of timber because the region had not been heavily logged for nearly a century. As a result, timber stands have recovered to marketable size. In addition, many states in the region have few, if any, timber harvest regulations. New timber mills and processing facilities began appearing quickly throughout Kentucky and Southern Appalachia in the 1990s. The combination of these factors has led to record timber harvest levels in excess of one billion board feet per year in Kentucky. Unfortunately, Kentucky was ill-prepared to deal with this sudden logging increase. There have been many debates concerning harvesting methods, such as clearcutting and highgrading and their effects on forest health. However, harvest methods themselves generally have less effect on water quality than the roads and landings that are built to remove the timber. The steep roads built to access and remove the timber have high potential for erosion. In the past, little effort was made to build roads with erosion controls and then reclaim the roads after harvest. Best management practices (BMPs) for roads and landings have been developed and are now required by the Forest Conservation Act of 1998. Also, buffers to protect riparian areas are required, limiting the amount of timber that can be removed near streams. The Forest Conservation Act does not require loggers to obtain a permit, nor does it require loggers to notify regulators of intent to harvest. As a result, operations in isolated areas may not be cited for improperly utilizing BMPs. The willingness of loggers and landowners to follow these BMP guidelines will greatly determine the impact logging has on water quality in the basin. There are more than 35 miles of streams impaired due to impacts from logging activities.
The Daniel Boone National Forest accounts for about 330,000 acres of public land in the Upper Cumberland River Basin. Logging still occurs in the forest but has declined dramatically over the last few years as a result of lawsuits and a shift in emphasis to recreation and ecosystem management.
Kentenia and Kentucky Ridge State Forests account for more than 20,000 acres in the Upper Cumberland River Basin. State forests are not protected from logging and are used to demonstrate proper logging techniques. Logging in state forests was suspended in 1996 to conduct inventories for ecosystem management.
Hydromodification
Hydromodification is the alteration of the natural circulation or distribution of water by the placement of structures or by other activities by humans. Hydromodification in the basin can probably be traced back to early settlers who rerouted stream channels in order to establish larger parcels of land for agriculture. Another early example would be the draining of wetlands to establish suitable farmland. The extent of the success of early settlers is debatable and difficult to quantify. In more recent times, the invention of earth-moving equipment has allowed man to dam large streams, build floodwalls and levees, fill in entire watersheds and mine gravel from creeks. All of these human alterations have taken place in the Upper Cumberland River to some degree, either in the past or the present.
The impacts caused by these modifications may not seem obvious at first; however, they do exist. For example, gravel mining is common in many small streams in the basin. The gravel is typically removed by dozier or backhoe and spread as road cover. The removal of the gravel substrate from the stream has multiple impacts. The gravel is important habitat for many aquatic creatures such as mussels and aquatic insects. Second, removal of gravel can change the flow and energetics of the stream, resulting in erosion of the stream channel and banks.
Agriculture
Agriculture, though still prevalent in most of the basin, has declined in recent decades. Many mountain hillsides that once were tilled are now covered with forest. Agriculture is still common along many stream bottoms and ridge tops, but there is a slow transition occurring. Small farms that were once profitable are being replaced by larger operations. Further discouragement for small farms has been the collapse of the tobacco market, which was long the most profitable commodity in the basin. Most of the agricultural production occurs west of Interstate 75 where the mountainous Cumberland Plateau begins to give way to the more suitable topography of the Eastern Pennyroyal region. Very large concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are limited to a few isolated areas. However, large animal feeding operations (AFOs) are common in Laurel, Rockcastle, Jackson, Pulaski, Wayne, Clinton, Cumberland and Russell counties. The most common crops are pasture/hay, tobacco, corn and livestock production of beef cattle, dairy and poultry.
Agriculture’s impact on water quality in the basin is less than in many areas in Kentucky, but still significant. Various pollutants associated with agricultural production impact more than 100 miles of assessed streams. The most common problems associated with agriculture are disturbance of riparian vegetation and runoff of pollutants such as sediment, nutrients, pesticides and pathogens. Of these, disturbance of riparian vegetation creates the most problems for water quality and aquatic life. Riparian vegetation serves many purposes. First, the vegetation along streams is necessary to minimize erosion of stream banks. Many streams receive significant sediment loads from eroding banks that aren’t adequately vegetated. Second, riparian vegetation provides shading for streams. Too much sunlight increases water temperatures to above normal levels and decreases dissolved oxygen and can result in increased algal blooms. Finally, riparian vegetation serves as a natural filter that reduces runoff of nutrients and sediment from the surrounding land.
Other problems that are common are cattle with access to streams, lack of nutrient management for intensive livestock or poultry operations and lack of erosion control practices.
The Agriculture Water Quality Act of 1994, which took full affect in 2001, required producers with more than 10 acres to develop and implement water quality plans. Although many farmers have completed plans, the actual number of plans prepared and implemented is unknown. The increased funding and incentives available under the expanded 2002 Farm Bill may have a significant impact on the successful implementation of the water quality plans.
Other Impacts
Urban Runoff/Stormwater Management - Although there are no large cities in the Upper Cumberland River Basin, urban runoff is still an issue in some isolated areas. With the increase in large shopping centers and industrial parks, stormwater management has become an issue for some small towns like Middlesboro, Somerset, Corbin and London. The result of increased impervious areas associated with large parking lots and roofed structures is faster runoff during storm events. This increase can turn small streams into raging torrents that cause erosion, increase polluted runoff and cause flooding and damage to personal property.
Permitted Discharges – Currently there are more than 300 active permitted discharges in the Upper Cumberland River Basin. Most discharges regularly meet their permit limits. However, there are cases where the discharge violates the permit on a regular basis. Many of these permit violations are associated with discharge of household wastewater from package plants or municipal facilities. More than 70 miles of streams are impaired from permitted discharges.
Off Highway Vehicles (OHVs) – This includes All Terrain Vehicles (ATVs), four- wheel drive vehicles and other off-road vehicles. Four wheelers have the most widespread use in the basin. Problems result from frequent use of these vehicles in one area creating rutted roads in steep terrain. Erosion can be severe, depending on the soil type and level of traffic.
